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By N. Myxir. Maranatha Baptist Bible College. 2017.

The skull consists of two sets of bones: the cranial The adult skeletal system consists of approximately 206 bones buy 5mg provera. Three auditory ossicles (“ear bones”) curs during infancy, the number increases. During adolescence, are present in the middle-ear chamber of each ear and however, the number of bones decreases, as separate bones grad- serve to transmit sound impulses. The hyoid bone is located above the larynx total functioning of the skeletal system. The vertebral column (“backbone”) the skull called sutural (wormian) bones. Additional bones may consists of 26 individual bones separated by cartilaginous develop in tendons in response to stress as the tendons repeat- intervertebral discs. Bones formed this way are called wormian bone: from Ole Worm, Danish physician, 1588–1654 sesamoid: Gk. Skeletal System: © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Introduction and the Axial Companies, 2001 Skeleton Chapter 6 Skeletal System: Introduction and the Axial Skeleton 133 Parietal bone Frontal bone Temporal bone Skull Occipital Zygomatic bone bone Maxilla Mandible Clavicle Pectoral Scapula girdle Costal cartilages Sternum Rib cage Ribs Humerus Vertebral column Ulna Ilium Pelvic girdle Os Pubis Sacrum coxae Coccyx Ischium Radius Carpal bones Metacarpal bones Phalanges Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Calcaneus Tarsal bones Creek Metatarsal bones Phalanges (a) (b) FIGURE 6. Skeletal System: © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Introduction and the Axial Companies, 2001 Skeleton 134 Unit 4 Support and Movement are fused to form the sacrum, which is the attachment por- tion of the pelvic girdle. A few terminal vertebrae are fused FUNCTIONS to form the coccyx (“tailbone”). The rib cage forms the bony and cartilaginous The bones of the skeleton perform the mechanical functions of sup- framework of the thorax. It articulates posteriorly with the port, protection, and leverage for body movement and the meta- thoracic vertebrae and includes the 12 pairs of ribs, the bolic functions of hemopoiesis and storage of fat and minerals.

Uptake inhibitors GABA is removed from the synapse by a high-affinity sodium and chloride-dependent uptake into GABA neurons and surrounding glia buy provera 2,5 mg otc. Blocking this process potentiates the inhibitory action of GABA applied directly to neurons in vivo and in vitro. Some inhibitors show specificity for glia and others for neuronal uptake, although since recent molecular cloning has revealed four distinct GABA transporters (Chapter 9) 340 NEUROTRANSMITTERS, DRUGS AND BRAIN FUNCTION this simple classification may require modification. Probably because of structural similarities to GABA, few of these compounds show brain penetration but tiagabin, a lipophilic form of nipecotic acid, has been tried successfully in refractory epilepsy. Receptor modulators Benzodiazepines bind to a specific site on the GABA chloride ionophore, which differs from that for GABA itself, but when occupied augments the binding and action of GABA to increase the frequency of opening of chloride ion channels. Many of them are potent anticonvulsants, especially when tested against PTZ and retard the development of kindling. Unfortunately their clinical value is limited by the development of tolerance. Barbiturates also potentiate the action of GABA but as they can do this by directly increasing the duration of opening of the chloride ion channel, independently of the GABA or benzadiazepine receptor sites, they cannot strictly be considered to augment GABA. Glutamate NMDA receptor antagonists such as AP5 and AP7 were first shown to be anticon- vulsant following introcerebroventricular injection into DBA/2 mice susceptable to audiogenic seizures. In addition, they offer protection to PTZ, reduce the after- discharge in amygdala kindled rats and can actually retard the development of kindling. Although AP7 has some effect in photosensitive baboons, systemically active com- pounds have proved difficult to synthesise. Recently felbamate, an antagonist at the glycine-sensitive site on the NMDA receptor, has shown systemic anticonvulsant activity and clinical efficacy. Inhibition of glutamate release was thought to be the mode of action of lamotrigine.